Pacoche

Pacoche Coastal Marine Wildlife Refuge (Refugio de Vida Silvestre Marino-Costero Pacoche) is a dual-environment protected area in Manabí province on Ecuador's central Pacific coast, encompassing approximately 5,044 hectares of terrestrial ecosystems and 26,468 hectares of marine-coastal environments. ^[1] Established on September 2, 2008, and gazetted in Official Register No. 444 on October 13, 2008, the refuge spans the cantons of Manta and Montecristi and is located approximately 25 km south of Manta city. The refuge is administered by Ecuador's Ministry of Environment, Water and Ecological Transition (MAATE) within the Sistema Nacional de Áreas Protegidas (SNAP), under IUCN Category V (Protected Landscape/Seascape). The terrestrial section protects one of the last intact stretches of Tumbesian coastal forest on Ecuador's Pacific coast, while the adjacent marine zone safeguards reef habitats, sandy and rocky shores, and open-water environments that support diverse marine wildlife.

Pacoche's fauna reflects its position within the Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena biodiversity hotspot, one of the world's most species-rich and threatened biogeographic zones. The terrestrial section supports the mantled howler monkey (Alouatta palliata aequatorialis), a charismatic flagship species that inhabits the refuge's forest in groups that are frequently observed and heard by visitors. ^[1] Over 200 bird species have been recorded in the refuge, with numerous species endemic to the Tumbesian region; notable species include hummingbirds, the Speckled Chachalaca, Spectacled Owl, and Yellow-rumped Cacique. ^[2] The marine zone is one of Ecuador's most important marine turtle nesting sites, hosting multiple species including olive ridley turtles. Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) visit the refuge's marine waters from June through October during their breeding and calving migration from the Southern Ocean. Whale sharks, giant stingrays, and diverse reef fish communities are also recorded in the marine zone.

The terrestrial portion of Pacoche protects a mosaic of Tumbesian dry forest and garúa forest (also called cloud-shadow or mist forest), two ecosystems of high conservation value characteristic of the Ecuadorian and Peruvian Pacific coast. ^[1] Garúa forests in the upper areas of the refuge are maintained by coastal fog and mist rather than direct rainfall, supporting a distinct plant community that includes Guadua cane, Toquilla palm (Carludovica palmata, the source of Panama hat fiber), and Cady palms. The lower coastal zone transitions through semi-arid scrub with cacti and ceibos (Ceiba trichistandra), which are characteristic of the drier Tumbesian formations. The refuge has an extensive vascular plant inventory with over 400 species documented, reflecting the high plant diversity of the Tumbesian ecoregion. The Tumbesian forest is considered critically endangered globally, with Pacoche representing one of the most significant remaining intact fragments on Ecuador's coast.

The Pacoche hills form part of the Coastal Cordillera system of Manabí province, a low mountain range rising from the Pacific shoreline. The underlying geology reflects the complex tectonic history of the Ecuadorian forearc basin, which developed on accreted oceanic terranes associated with the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath South America. The oldest basement rocks belong to the Cretaceous Piñon Formation, composed of gabbros, basalts, volcano-sediments, and pillow lavas, overlain by the Late Cretaceous Cayo Formation volcano-sedimentary sequences and Miocene Angostura Formation sandstones and tuffaceous shales containing marine fauna. ^[1] The coastal zone is characterized by a series of raised Pleistocene marine terraces formed through rapid tectonic uplift, with estimated uplift rates of 0.9 to 1.2 mm per year. The marine area of the refuge includes a diversity of seafloor environments: soft-sediment continental shelf, rocky reefs, rocky beaches, and sandy shores — reflecting both the sedimentary and hard-rock geological history of the coastal zone.

Pacoche experiences a tropical megathermic arid to semi-arid climate, with annual average temperatures around 24°C and precipitation typically below 500 mm per year, concentrated in the January-to-April wet season when the Intertropical Convergence Zone approaches. ^[1] This relatively dry climate is what drives the Tumbesian dry forest ecosystem characteristic of the refuge. A distinctive microclimate feature is the garúa phenomenon: persistent coastal fog and mist driven by cool Humboldt Current upwelling along the Ecuadorian coast maintains sufficient moisture for fog-dependent forest formations in the upper Pacoche hills, even during the dry season. The cold Humboldt Current also moderates sea surface temperatures in the adjacent Pacific, creating productive upwelling conditions that support the refuge's diverse marine life, including humpback whale feeding grounds. El Niño events bring anomalously heavy rainfall that can temporarily transform the dry forest character of the refuge and increase marine temperatures, reducing upwelling productivity.

The Manabí coast has been inhabited continuously since pre-Columbian times, with the coastal zone around present-day Manta and Montecristi among the most densely populated areas of pre-Columbian Ecuador. The Manteño civilization, one of the last major pre-Inca cultures of coastal Ecuador, established significant settlements along this coastline between roughly 600 and 1530 CE, developing extensive maritime trade networks that extended along the Pacific coast of South America. ^[1] The Pacoche hills and coastal zone formed part of the Manteño cultural landscape. Spanish colonization of the Manabí coast began in the sixteenth century, with Manta — originally known as San Pablo de Manta — developing as a port. The coastal forests of Pacoche provided timber and non-timber forest products to local communities over the colonial and republican periods. The Toquilla palm, which grows in the garúa forests of the refuge, has been harvested for centuries to weave the hats that became internationally known as Panama hats, a tradition recognized by UNESCO as intangible cultural heritage. ^[2]

Prior to formal protection, the Pacoche coastal forests faced pressure from agricultural expansion, timber extraction, and charcoal production, contributing to the severe reduction of Tumbesian dry forest across Ecuador's Manabí coast. Surveys in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries confirmed that the Pacoche forests harbored significant biodiversity, including large populations of howler monkeys and high bird endemism, making them a conservation priority. The refuge was formally established on September 2, 2008, through Interministerial Agreement No. 131, gazetted in Official Register No. 444 on October 13, 2008, encompassing 5,044 hectares of terrestrial habitat and an initial marine-coastal zone, subsequently expanded to 26,468 hectares of marine-coastal environments, bringing total coverage to approximately 31,517 hectares. ^[1] The refuge is managed by MAATE under IUCN Category V. Management has focused on controlling illegal logging, monitoring wildlife populations, and developing ecotourism as a sustainable livelihood alternative for communities in and around the refuge.

The principal trail network within Pacoche's terrestrial section passes through the garúa forest and dry forest, offering reliable encounters with mantled howler monkey groups whose distinctive calls can be heard from considerable distance. The trail design takes advantage of the monkeys' tolerance of human presence, allowing close observation of social behavior and foraging. Over 250 bird species can be encountered along the forest trails, making the refuge a significant birdwatching destination, particularly for Tumbesian endemic species. The Pacoche beach and coastal headlands within the refuge provide access to marine turtle nesting areas, with hatchling emergence observable during nesting season. From June through October, whale-watching from the coastal zone or by boat in the marine area offers encounters with humpback whales. The Pacoche area is also notable for the traditional Toquilla palm groves used in Panama hat weaving, connecting natural and cultural heritage. The refuge is located approximately 25 km south of Manta, making it accessible as a day trip from the city.

Pacoche is located approximately 25 km south of Manta, the largest city in Manabí province and the primary gateway for the refuge. Manta is served by an international airport with connections to Quito and Guayaquil, as well as bus services from major Ecuadorian cities. The refuge is accessible by road from Manta, with the Pacoche sector reachable by private vehicle or tour transport. MAATE manages access to the refuge and maintains a ranger station at the refuge entrance where visitor fees are collected and guides can be arranged. Guided hiking through the forest trail network is the standard visitor experience. Accommodation is available in Manta rather than within the refuge itself, and most visitors make a half-day or full-day trip from the city. Whale-watching boat tours during the June–October season can be arranged through operators in Manta. The southern boundary of the refuge is approximately 17 km from the town of Puerto Cayo, which provides an alternative access point.

Pacoche protects one of Ecuador's most important remnants of Tumbesian coastal forest, an ecoregion classified as critically endangered with less than 5% of its original extent remaining intact across Ecuador and Peru. The refuge's howler monkey population and high bird endemism make it a flagship site for Tumbesian conservation. The marine zone provides critical habitat for humpback whales during their breeding season, for marine turtle nesting, and for the diverse reef communities that support artisanal fisheries in the region. Primary conservation threats include illegal logging at the forest edge, agricultural encroachment, and fishing pressure in the marine zone. MAATE conducts regular patrols and wildlife monitoring within the refuge. Ecotourism development centered on howler monkey watching and whale watching has been promoted as a means of generating local economic benefits from the refuge while reducing pressure on natural resources. The refuge falls within the Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena biodiversity hotspot, recognized globally as a priority for conservation investment given its combination of exceptional species richness and severe habitat loss. ^[1]